The+Eight+Hosts+of+Celestial+Nagas+and+Yakshis

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 * Identification**

Title: The Eight Hosts of Celestial Nagas and Yakshis Artist: Unknown Country of Origin: China Date: 1454 Period: Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Size: h:141.00 w:79.20 cm (h:55 1/2 w:31 1/8 inches) Museum Accession Number: 1973.70.2 Current Location: The Cleveland Museum of Art (not currently on display)


 * Introduction**

This painted scroll was created in the year 1454 during the Ming Dynasty for use in the Buddhist Water-Land ritual. The scroll depicts the lesser celestial deities that are invoked during the ritual ceremony. The artist is unknown, although it was commissioned by the emperor, Ching-t’ai. It currently is located at The Cleveland Museum of Art, where it was acquired in 1973 through the John L. Severance Fund.


 * Descriptive Analysis**

This artwork is fairly large and rectangular at 141 cm by 79.2 cm. The media used to create this hanging scroll were ink and color on silk. The lines used stay uniform and do not vary in thickness. There is also not much depth to the painting. There are a variety of colors within the composition ranging from the pastels used in the background to the dark, bolder colors seen in the garb and decoration of the figures and in the sky.

On the upper right corner there is one seal and dedicatory inscription of two lines with a date that reads "Offered on the third day of the eighth month, the fifth year of Ching-t'ai [1454] of the Great Ming Dynasty"(Cleveland Museum). Below this is another one line inscription that identifies the subject matter as images of demonesses (Ch.罗叉女, Skt. rāk ṣ asī). A third inscription, written in black ink that reads "By imperial order, directed and supervised by the Senior Eunuchs of the Directorate of Imerial Household Service, Shang I and Wang Ch'in" (Cleveland Museum).

Nine figures are featured in the painting; out of the five figures at the bottom of the composition, three are clearly male and the other two appear to be creatures. The other four figures located toward the top of the composition are clearly female. The figures, some standing and some seated, are among clouds in the sky. While the figures are represented somewhat naturalistically, the clouds are highly stylized. They are arranged in pastel yellow and pink swirling patterns that take up over two-thirds of the background space. The remaining less than a third of background space is taken up by the sky, which is a deep blue with some smaller streaks of clouds among it. The artist painted soft, almost translucent cream outlines around the clouds at the skyline, so as to show that there are more clouds behind the featured ones and to create some sense of depth. There are also patches of medium green within the clouds in the areas where the figures toward the bottom of the composition are standing.

The human-like figures that appear in the painting have a strong, corpulent physicality. The male figures have robust middles with weighty jawlines, and the females have fleshy moon-shaped faces. All of the figures are elaborately decorated with richly-colored, elaborate garments, jewelry, and accessories. Blue, red, green, gold, yellow, purple, ochre, and pink are all colors found within this composition. All the garments are painted to look layered, and the drapery to look light and delicate. This is done with lines and sinuous curves. The male figure located at the bottom left is wearing an intricate costume and appears to be carrying a flute in his hands. His costume has flowing snake-like cloth projections extending from the bottom of it. Also this figure has the same projections protruding from both sides of a headpiece he is wearing. He has facial hair and has a halo around his head. The male figure on the bottom right is wearing a similarly elaborate costume with the same snake-like projections. This figure has a full beard and appears to be holding a scroll. He also has a headdress and a halo around his head. The figure located in the bottom middle, slightly above the other two figures, is some type of creature. It appears to be part reptilian with its blue skinned scales and talonned feet, but also part bird with its sharp beak. The figure is also clothed and adorned with jewelry, but not as elaborately as the other ones. It carries in its hands a long red stick, which is attached to some kind of ceremonial object with long flowing yellow projections coming off of it. The figure on the left in the middle of the composition looks to be half human and half beast. He is very masculine with his large bulging muscles and his sharp, pointed teeth. The figure is turned away with his buttocks showing, and is looking into the face of a grey snake that is wrapped around his club. He also has an elaborate costume with snake-like projections and a halo. The figure located in the left center is human-like and appears to be seated among the clouds. He is the only male or creature figure that is facing toward the center and not toward the right or left. He is elaborately costumed with a blue Taotie headdress and highly decorated garbs with flowing projections. Although somewhat indistinguishable, he holds an object that looks like a loaf of bread with red ribbon tied around it. This figure also has a beard and a halo around his head.

While the male and creature figures have distinguishing facial features, all the female figures have faces that look very similar. They are all much paler than the men, and they all wear their black hair up and adorned with elaborate headdresses. Their garb is similar, but every female figure has different colored robe and a different necklace. All of them wear two bracelets that are gold with jewels adorning them. The figures are arranged in various poses, with one even facing to the left, while all of the others are facing toward the right or center. The female figures do not have halos, but they all carry swords.

There is a lot of fine line work and detail in the painting that have preserved well. The preservation of this scroll can be most seen in the colors, which are still opaque and appear to have minimal, if any, fading.


 * Formal and Contextual Analysis**

During the Ming Dynasty, Buddhism was pervasive throughout Chinese culture; therefore religious art was also prevalent during this period. The imperial court was the main source of patronage for Buddhist art in China. The “court” was made up of the emperor, members of his family, and other powerful individuals such as eunuchs and clerics that served the imperial household (Weidner, 1994, p.51). While the work of the early-Ming academy was known for landscapes, paintings of secular figures, and birds and flowers, there were a number of court artists that specialized in religious subjects. These artists, concerned with Buddhist art, produced paintings for monasteries and ritual purposes (Weidner, 1994, p.54-55).

//The Eight Hosts of Celestial Nagas and Yakshis// is part of a set of 139 hanging scroll paintings that were commissioned by the Ming emperor, Ching-t’ai. The inscriptions on this painting indicate that it was offered on third day of the eighteenth month, the fifth year of Ching-t’ai (1454) of the Great Ming Dynasty. The creation of the paintings was supervised by the Senior Eunuchs of the Directorate of Imperial Household Services, Shang I and Wang Ch’in (Ho, 1980, p.153). Today, thirty-four of these paintings are now at the Musee Guimet in France and two are at the Cleveland Museum of Art. This series of paintings were specifically commissioned for use in the Buddhist Water-Land ritual (Weidner, 1994, p. 57).

The Water-Land rite was an important part of establishing and maintaining the influences of Buddhism in the face of competition from Daoism and Confucianism. This was partly accomplished by absorbing elements from competing systems of belief. Nature deities as well as Confucian exemplars of filial piety were incorporated into the Water-Land ceremony, although they were ritually and subordinated to the Buddhist pantheon (Weidner, 1994, p.281). Interestingly, the Buddhist pantheon included deities that were not specifically Chinese or Buddhist. However, because all religious traditions in China fit into a larger cosmic totality, there was no sense of a person being required to choose any one religion over another (“Living in the Chinese Cosmos”, 2007).

The ritual, which dates to the Tang period, remained one of the most spectacular funerary rites in Chinese culture until the early nineteenth-century (Leidy, 2009, p.279). Despite its origins during the Tang Dynasty, the first account of the ritual describes it being held for the imperial ancestors of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty. It was thought that those people who had died, were properly buried, and looked after by their family posed no threat to the living. However, those who had died by violent means and had not been taken care of by family were likely to interfere malevolently in the living world. Such souls needed to be guided in their transit from unrest to a state of rest. For Buddhists, this transition was facilitated by rites such as the Water-Land ritual (Heller, 2011, 4). The esoteric ceremony is now conducted for the salvation of souls of all the deceased sentient beings on land and water. The ritual is usually performed at a monastery by Buddhist monks, and attracts a large crowd of lay people. Performance of the ritual is complex, involving many cycles of purification, confession, offerings, recitation, and vegetarian feasting (Weidner, 1994, p. 280).

Larger temples have halls dedicated to the ceremony, but some public halls that exist for a variety of purposes are converted with the hanging of ritual painting. These Water-Land ritual paintings are hung in a specific arrangement that places the more important deities in the area called the “inner altar.” The Gods of the celestial bureaucracy and other lesser beings are arranged at secondary stations called the “outer altar.” Tables holding incense, flowers, and other ritual items are set before the various paintings. During the course of the ritual, all of the beings that are depicted in the paintings are invoked and brought into the ritual space. The more advanced beings or deities free the others, particularly the ancestors and relatives of those that had commissioned the ceremony, nourished them, and sent them to rebirth (Leidy, 2009, p.279-280).

The painting that I have chosen is one of those that depict the lesser celestial deities. As mentioned in the title, it depicts the hosts of celestial Nagas and Yakshis. The Nagas are beings that are associated with snakes and are depicted in the male and creature-like figures at the bottom of the composition. The Yakshis are depicted the female deities at the top of the composition (Leidy, 2009, p.269). 

//The Eight Hosts of Celestial Nagas and Yakshis// is similar to the other painting located at the Cleveland Museum of Art, //The Bodhisattvas of the Ten Stages of Enlightenment//. [=field_collection%3A828&f[1]=field_classification_text%3APainting]] This painting features the same type of clouds, elaborate costuming of figures, and incorporate many of the same colors. However, they were likely painted by a different artist(s) because each of the seated Bodhisattvas have identical facial features, while the hosts show various individualized facial expressions. The curves of the scarves and the drapery, the layering of garments, and the inclusion of immense detail in both paintings are meant to invoke the figural composition of the Tang Dynasty. The moon- shaped faces and bee-stung lips of the female figures, as well as the portly appearance of all the figures are also in the tradition of the Tang Dynasty (Ho, 1980, p.154). All of the Water-Land paintings in the Ming and Qing periods were mostly done in fine brush strokes with heavy colors, line drawing, and color washes. The brush work used is extremely meticulous and precise. Colors used were bright and brilliant (“Offering the Misty Clouds”, 2010).

The Water-Land scrolls located at the Cleveland Museum and the Musee Guimet are the finest of the religious paintings done in the Ming Dynasty. They demonstrate the high quality of religious art produced by court workshops in the fifteenth-century. Their design and decorative refinement set them apart from works made for provincial temples, and other Water-Land scrolls that have been preserved (Weidner,1994, p.57).


 * Personal Interpretation**

I was initially drawn to this painting because of its vibrant colors. Before viewing this painting on the Cleveland Museum of Art’s website, I had not seen such a colorful painting from the Ming Dynasty period. Also, the flowing garments and the swirling clouds provided points of visual interest that drew my eye into the painting. I liked that the artist included the snake-like projections; I found them relevant considering that the Nagas are associated with snakes. As I became more familiar with the work, I found the subject matter to be of particular interest. During my research I did find out much specific information about this painting. I found a lot of information about its purpose and its inclusion in a larger set, but no names and descriptions of the deities that are featured in this painting.


 * Reference Section**


 * Printed Sources**

Heller, Natasha, “From Imperial Glory to Buddhist Piety: The Record of a Ming Ritual in Three Contexts”, //History of Religions// 51(1) (2011): 59-83. (Gives a detailed description of the Water-Land Ritual and how it has changed over time)

Ho, Wai-kam, //Eight dynasties of Chinese painting: the collections of the Nelson Gallery-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, and the Cleveland Museum of Art//, Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1980. (The Cleveland Museum of Art, Chinese painting catalogue provides a more detailed description of the artwork)

Leidy, Denise Patry, //The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History and Meaning//, Boston: Shambhala Press, 2009. (Provides information about Buddhist art and specifically includes a section on the Water-Land Ritual paintings)

Weidner, Marsha, //Latter Days of the Law: Images of Chinese Buddhism 850-1850//, Lawrence: Spencer Museum of Art and University of Kansas, 1994. (Gives information about the Water-Land Ritual as well as the specific function that the paintings had to the ritual)


 * On-line Sources**

Chung Tai Museum, “Offering the Misty Clouds”, May, 2010 <[]> (April 2013). (Provides a look at stylistic characteristics of Buddhist ritual paintings)

Cohen, Myron L. and Stephen F. Teiser, “Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding ‘Religion’ in Context” 2007, <[]> (April 2013). (Gives information about the past and current role of religion in Chinese culture)

The Cleveland Museum of Art, “The Eight Hosts of Celestial Nagas and Yakshis, 1454”, 2012, <[|http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1973.70.2?collection_search_views_fulltext=&created_date_op=%3D&created_date=&between_start=&between_end=&field_artist=&page=2&f[0=field_collection%3A828&f[1]=field_classification_text%3APainting]]> (April 2013) (Provides the identification information and photographs of the artwork)